Overall situation of professional identity of female PE teachers
First, the results showed that the female PE teachers generally had an upper–middle level of professional identity. Table 1 shows that the female PE teachers had an overall mean score of 4.12 for their professional identity, which is higher than the theoretical median value of the 5-point scale. In terms of specific dimensions, the mean scores of professional values, professional behavior tendency, and professional sense of belonging were all higher than 4 points, and the scores for each dimension from high to low could be ordered as follows: professional values, professional behavior tendency, professional belonging, and role values. Among these dimensions, professional values had the highest average score (M = 4.30). This dimension refers to individual teachers’ positive understanding and evaluation of the significance and function of the teaching profession, reflecting their degree of recognition of the goals of the teaching profession. This result shows that the female PE teachers had a positive understanding of their own profession. Professional behavior tendency (M = 4.27) ranked in second place and belongs to the category of behavior tendency indicators. “It shows that teachers are willing to carry out teaching work as teachers. And show positive habitual behaviors or intentions that are beneficial to improving the quality and energy efficiency of professional work” [31]. This result indicates that most of the female PE teachers were able to adhere demand to teaching norms and carry out PE teaching in line with these norms. The dimension of professional belonging (M = 4.01) is part of the emotional component of professional identity, and “means that the individual teacher realizes that he or she belongs to the group of teachers and often has the emotional experience of sharing the honor and disgrace with the teaching profession” [32]. This value indicates that most of the female PE teachers had a relatively positive subjective psychological experience in their work and had established a strong cooperative relationship with their profession. Finally, role values (M = 3.93), as another cognitive dimension, refers to individual teachers’ positive understanding and evaluation of the importance of the “teacher role.” It represents the degree to which female PE teachers internalize the role of teachers. According to the survey results, there was a gap between role values and professional values, which are also cognitive components. This indicates that although the female PE teachers showed positive professional cognition, maintained a high sense of responsibility and adhered to the mission to deliver school sports, and were willing to make positive efforts in their role, their willingness to answer “who am I” with reference to the role of PE teachers was relatively low. The statistical results show that Chinese female PE teachers generally demonstrate a relatively high degree of identification with their profession, and this will be conducive to their sustainable development in the teaching profession.
Second, there are differences in professional identity among PE teachers of different genders. The independent sample t-test was applied to compare whether there was a significant difference in the mean of two independent groups (Female, Male ) on a continuous variable (professional identity score). The results showed that the scores for professional identity, professional values, professional belonging, and professional behavior tendency were higher among female PE teachers than their male counterparts, and the role values of the male teachers were slightly higher than those of the female teachers. There was no significant difference between the professional identity of male PE teachers (M = 4.07) and female PE teachers (M = 4.12, t = 1.630, P = 0.10 > 0.05), which is consistent with the findings of Cui et al. [33]. Nevertheless, some studies have pointed out that male and female teachers differ in the reference frameworks selected when constructing their professional identity. Male teachers are more likely to construct their professional identity by comparing themselves with lower-status occupations, while female teachers identify upward by comparing themselves with higher-status occupations [17]. In terms of specific identity, there was a statistically significant difference in professional values between the male PE teachers (M = 4.18) and female PE teachers (M = 4.30) (t = 3.727, P = 0.00 < 0.01). There was no significant difference in the sense of professional belonging between male and female PE teachers (M = 3.96 and M = 4.01, t = 0.581, P = 0.62 > 0.05), and the role values of male PE teachers (M = 3.97) and female PE teachers (M = 3.93) were also not statistically significant (t=-0.944, P = 0.35 > 0.05). The difference in professional behavior tendency between male PE teachers (M = 4.16) and female PE teachers (M = 4.27) was statistically significant (t = 3.503, P = 0.00 < 0.01). These results suggest that female PE teachers may have better occupational evaluation and internalization of occupational norms than males in the same profession.
Compared with previous studies, the results showed some similarities, such as female teachers performing significantly better than male teachers in some dimensions of professional identity. However, there are also some discrepancies. For example, the current study found no significant difference in professional identity between the two genders, which differs from the conclusion in some studies that female teachers outperform male teachers or male teachers outperform female teachers in professional identity [34, 35]. Regarding the reasons why the professional values and professional behavior tendency of female PE teachers are significantly higher than those of males in the same profession, some studies have pointed out that it may be related to the gender culture of China, the professional characteristics of primary and secondary school teachers, and the division of labor of women [36, 37].
Analysis of differences in the professional identity of female PE teachers
The professional identity of female PE teachers may be affected by individual factors such as marital and parental status, professional title, years of teaching experience, length of schooling, and income. Exploring the role of these factors has a high degree of significance for understanding the characteristics of female PE teachers’ professional development and improving their professional satisfaction.
Years of teaching experience
According to Table 2, the professional identity of the female PE teachers was found to strengthen in line with increasing years of teaching experience. PE teachers with 21 years or more of teaching experience had the highest group recognition (M = 4.32), and the mean values of role values and professional sense of belonging also exceeded the average level of the overall female PE teacher sample. Female teachers with 6–15 years of teaching experience had the lowest score (M = 4.07), and even the average scores for role values and professional sense of belonging were lower than those in the overall female PE teacher sample. Regarding the scores within each teaching experience group, the five groups had the highest scores in the dimensions of professional values and professional behavior tendency, while the scores for professional belonging and role values were relatively low. This indicates that the professional behavior and cognition of the female PE teachers in different age groups were well developed, but professional emotion needed to be improved, especially for teachers with 16 to 20 years of teaching experience. On the whole, the professional identity of young and middle-aged female PE teachers was not as good as that of older teachers. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the identity needs of young and middle-aged female PE teachers during PE teacher training and counseling, and more emotional care should be provided for middle-aged teachers.
The ANOVA results showed statistically significant differences in the professional identity of female PE teachers in groups with different lengths of teaching experience. There were very significant differences in role values, professional behavior tendency, professional values, and professional identity. The post hoc results showed that the significant differences in overall identity, professional values, professional belonging, and professional behavior intention mainly occurred between the ≥ 21 years of teaching experience group and the ≤ 5 years group, and between the 6–10 years group and 11–15 years group, and there was no significant difference between other groups. The group distribution of role values was similar, and the difference between the 6–10 years of teaching experience group and the 16–20 years group was also statistically significant. This indicates that changing teachers’ professional cognition and behavior takes a long time and cannot produce significant results in the short term [38].
Marital and parental status
As shown in Table 3, married female PE teachers with children had the highest professional identity score (M = 4.16), followed by those who were married without children (M = 4.10), and unmarried and childless female teachers (M = 4.05). That is, professional values, professional belonging, professional behavior tendency, and role values of basic education female PE teachers were positively correlated with marital and parental status. Comparing the score composition within each group showed a similar structure across all groups; that is, the mean scores were the highest for the dimensions of professional values and professional behavior tendency, while the mean scores for the dimensions of role value and professional belonging were the lowest. With the exception of the group where the teachers were married with children, the other two groups did not score above 4 points. The scores of the three groups were ranked from high to low as “professional values > professional behavior tendency > professional sense of belonging > role value.”
The ANOVA results showed that there were significant differences in professional values, professional belonging, and the overall professional identity of female PE teachers with different marital and parental status, but there were no significant differences in role values and professional behavior tendency. The post hoc test found that all significant differences occurred between the married with children and the unmarried without children groups. There were no significant differences between the married with children and the married without children groups, or between the unmarried without children and the married without children groups. In general, the married group with children had the strongest level of professional identity in all dimensions. These findings indicate that female PE teachers’ marital status did not affect their professional identity, but whether or not they have children had a significant impact on their professional identity. Female PE teachers with children performed better across all dimensions of identity, which may be related to the fact that the role of mother aligns with the professional characteristics of primary and secondary school teachers. The caring and nurturing qualities inherent in motherhood help female PE teachers to establish a better and closer relationship with students to a certain extent, contributing to a higher level of professional identity.
Professional title
The more senior the professional title of female PE teachers, the higher their level of professional identity. As shown in Table 4, female PE teachers with senior professional titles had the highest degree of professional identity (M = 4.26), followed by first-level teachers (M = 4.20), ungraded teachers (M = 4.09), and second-level teachers (M = 4.02). Based on the promotion timeline of an ordinary grassroots teacher, second-level teachers have around 6 years of teaching experience, and they have a higher probability of facing the “seven-year itch” compared to teachers at other stages. Therefore, female PE teachers should make adequate psychological preparations for this stage when planning their personal career development. At the same time, to maintain the stability of the PE teaching workforce, educational administrative departments and school administrators are recommended to provide targeted support to this group in their daily teacher management work.
The ANOVA results showed significant differences in the professional identity of female PE teachers with different professional titles, with very significant differences in the total score, professional cognition, and professional behavior. A further post hoc test showed that in terms of the total score, there were statistically significant differences between unrated teachers and senior teachers, second-level teachers and senior teachers, unrated teachers and first-level teachers, and second-level teachers and first-level teachers. In terms of professional values and role values, the significance between groups was consistent with the total score. Regarding the sense of professional belonging, there were statistically significant differences only in the two pairs of second-level teachers and senior teachers, and ungraded teachers and senior teachers. In terms of professional behavior intention, the differences between ungraded teachers and second-level teachers, and first-level teachers and senior teachers, were statistically significant, with no significant difference between the other groups. This indirectly confirms both strong and weak correlations between different dimensions of identity and changes in professional title. Among them, the correlation between professional emotion and professional title promotion was weak; improvements in this take a long time. In contrast, changes in professional behavior are relatively easy, while professional cognition showed the highest sensitivity to professional title promotion.
Educational stage
The results showed that the professional identity of the female PE teachers strengthened in line with increasing years of education. Table 5 shows that they had a good degree of professional recognition, which is reflected in the average scores of primary school, junior high school, and senior high school teachers all being over 4 points. Female PE teachers in senior high school had the highest total score (M = 4.35), and their performance in all dimensions was significantly higher than the other two groups, followed by junior high school teachers (M = 4.10) and primary school teachers (M = 4.09). The scores of the different groups of female teachers were compared with the average scores of female teachers, and the results showed that the total score, role values, professional values, professional behavior tendency, and professional sense of belonging of primary school teachers were slightly lower than the overall average. The total score, professional values, professional sense of belonging, and professional identity of junior high school teachers were slightly lower than the overall average, and the scores for role values were consistent with the overall average. Higher scores than the overall average were found for the total score, role values, professional values, professional behavior tendency, and professional sense of belonging of high school teachers. The reason for these findings may be related to the teaching challenges of each educational stage as well as societal perceptions. The general public tend to often perceive senior high school teachers as having a higher social status than that of primary school and junior high school teachers.
The ANOVA results showed that the differences in role values, professional values, and professional sense of belonging were statistically significant, but differences in professional behavior tendency were not significant. The post hoc test results confirmed that the source of the significant differences in total score, role values, professional values, and professional belonging occurred between primary school and senior high school, and between junior high school and senior high school teachers. There was no statistically significant difference in professional identity between female PE teachers at the primary school and junior high school levels.
Salary level
As can be seen from Table 6, the average total professional identity scores of female PE teachers at different salary levels are more than 4 points, with the total score for the groups earning 4500–5999, 6000–7499, and > 9000 being higher than the overall average for all female PE teachers (M = 4.12). Although there no linear relationship was found between salary level and the professional identity of female PE teachers, comparing the mean values of different groups within the same dimension with the dimensional average values of all female PE teachers showed that the dimensional scores of female PE teachers at certain salary levels were either higher or lower than the average values. For example, in the dimension of role values, female teachers with a monthly salary of more than 9000 achieved the highest score (M = 4.08), even exceeding the group average of 3.93 and outperforming the vast majority of female PE teachers. On the dimension of professional belonging, female teachers with a monthly salary between 6000 and 7499 yuan had the highest degree of recognition, which was 4.01 points higher than the group average. In terms of professional values and professional behavior tendency, groups with salaries of 4500 yuan and above exceeded the group benchmark and reached a relatively ideal state. The internal comparison of each group revealed some common characteristics across the six groups, which are mainly manifested as “high occupational value, low role value” and “high behavioral tendency, low sense of belonging.”
The ANOVA results revealed significant differences in professional values, professional behavior tendency, and the overall identity of female PE teachers in different salary ranges, but there was no significant difference among these teachers in relation to role values and professional sense of belonging. The post hoc test results showed significant differences between more groups in the dimension of professional behavior tendency; the differences in the total score mainly appeared in the low–middle to upper–middle wage range, such as the 3000–4499 yuan group and 4500–5999 yuan group, and the 3000–4499 yuan group and 6000–7499 yuan group. Significant differences in professional values were concentrated among the < 3000, 3000–4499, > 9000 yuan, and other groups. This indirectly indicates that the behavioral dimension of professional identity and professional values are greatly affected by economic factors, while role values and a feeling of professional belonging are less affected by economic factors.
Cluster analysis of professional identity of female PE teachers
Clarifying the specific types and identity structure of teachers’ professional identity helps to better understand the internal differences within female PE teachers’ professional identity. This can also provide more targeted suggestions for improvement aimed at education managers. Therefore, cluster analysis was used to distinguish different types of female PE teachers. First, the K-means clustering method was used for exploratory analysis, and it showed that the best effect was achieved when four cluster categories were used. The P value in Table 7 shows that there were significant attitude differences in all dimensions of professional identity among the four groups, indicating that this classification was effective. Second, the second-order clustering method was used to verify the clustering effect. Figure 1 shows that the clustering quality reached the level of “good” and met the classification standard. Finally, according to the performance of each cluster category in different identity dimensions and the overall identity structure, the four groups are named as “Passionate type,” “Neutral type,” “Apathetic type,” and “Unbalanced type.” The professional identity structure of the four groups is shown in Fig. 2.
Clustering quality in the model profile
Structural distribution of the professional identity of four types of female PE teachers
Passionate type
“Passionate type” female PE teachers, consisting of 340 individuals, had the best professional identity performance. As well-rounded individuals with no obvious identity defects, their average scores for each identity dimension exceeded 4.5. Compared with the professional identity of the whole group of female PE teachers, they also achieved an excellent level in the dimension of “role values.” This indicates that “passionate type” female PE teachers have a positive individual cognition about the PE teacher profession, attach importance to the role of PE teachers, and internalize it in daily behavior norms, as well as having a strong sense of teacher community and group belonging. Generally speaking, this type of PE teacher has a more positive professional self-schema, a better level of mental health, and less job burnout than the other types of teacher. They are the reserve talents of excellent PE teachers. A survey of New Zealand secondary school teachers confirmed a significant negative relationship between subjective well-being and job burnout [39], which suggests that higher levels of occupational well-being and job satisfaction are associated with a high level of professional identity.
Neutral type
“Neutral type” female PE teachers, accounting for nearly half of the total number of teachers, are characterized most prominently by maintaining a low or moderate level of professional. Their mean scores for the different dimensions ranged from 3.5 to 3.9 points, indicating a middle-level correlation, with relatively small differences between the dimensions of identity. As the largest group in the sample, the “neutral type” female teachers had a lower cognition of the professional values of PE teachers than the “passionate type” female teachers, but at an acceptable level. However, their ability to internalize the role of a PE teacher was relatively modest, even lower than that of the “unbalanced type” female PE teachers. According to the scores of professional emotion and professional behavior, the “neutral type” female PE teachers can adhere to teaching norms and maintain a positive emotional affiliation to the PE teacher community. In daily work and life, this type of teacher tends to have an almost conservative style.
Apathetic type
“Apathetic type” female PE teachers accounted for the lowest proportion among the four types of teacher, which suggests that the development of female PE teachers in basic education in China has a good professional identity foundation, which is a favorable condition for strengthening the development of PE teachers. From the perspective of a balanced level of identity structure, the “apathetic type” female teachers were found to be similar to the “neutral type” female teachers, that is, the differences between them were not large, forming a uniformly distributed quadrilateral structure. The difference is that the former showed a low level of identity in each dimension, with an average score of 1.9–2.2, each of which failed to reach the passing threshold. This indicates that they not only have a negative cognition and evaluation of the PE teacher profession but also have a weak sense of professional community and group belonging. Their awareness of role playing is limited, and their behavior is not too constrained by existing teacher norms. Moreover, compared with other types of female PE teachers, “apathetic type” teachers are prone to job burnout and lack of endogenous motivation for career development. This may lead to a strong intention to leave their post or change careers [40], posing a potential threat to the stability of PE teaching workforce.
Unbalanced type
In contrast with the uniform distribution of professional identity structure in the first three types of female PE teachers, the hallmark feature of the identity structure of the “unbalanced type” is “lattice collapse.” As shown in Table 7, while their sense of professional belonging was found to lag at a critical level, the mean values of role values, professional behavior tendency, and professional values all reached a high level and can thus be categorized as leading factors. Finally, three dimensions of professional identity scored high, and one dimension scored low. At the same time, the correlation structure indicates that although the 148 female PE teachers with an unbalanced type of identity were characterized by a lack of professional emotion, they were in a high state of development in terms of their own professional recognition, PE teacher role play, and professional behavior. In fact, the imbalance in professional sense of belonging revealed by the table is only one of the situations that occur in reality, and the “imbalance” among female PE teachers may also appear in the other three dimensions at any time. In the face of these situations, researchers and managers need to analyze specific problems so as to implement precise measures that address their weak points. In general, the collapse in teachers’ professional emotions is associated with certain negative events that dampen teachers’ professional enthusiasm and hinder or weaken teachers’ pleasure and satisfaction in their work.
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